The IELTS Reading section demands strong comprehension and analytical skills. One passage that exemplifies these skills is the “Accidental Scientists” article, which explores the unpredictable nature of scientific discovery. This section not only critiques traditional scientific methods but also illustrates how chance can play a crucial role in groundbreaking findings.
Actual Exam Passage
Accidental Scientists
A paradox lies close to the heart of scientific discovery. If you know just what you are looking for, finding it can hardly count as a discovery, since it was fully anticipated. But if, on the other hand, you have no notion of what you are looking for, you cannot know when you have found it, and discovery, as such, is out of the question. In the philosophy of science, these extremes map onto the purest forms of deductivism and inductivism: In the former, the outcome is supposed to be logically contained in the premises you start with; in the latter, you are recommended to start with no expectations whatsoever and see what turns up.
As in so many things, the ideal position is widely supposed to reside somewhere in between these two impossible-to-realize extremes. You want to have a good enough idea of what you are looking for to be surprised when you find something else of value, and you want to be ignorant enough of your end point that you can entertain alternative outcomes. Scientific discovery should, therefore, have an accidental aspect, but not too much of one. Serendipity is a word that expresses a position something like that. It’s a fascinating word, and the late Robert King Merton—”the father of the sociology of science”—liked it well enough to compose its biography, assisted by the French cultural historian Elinor Barber.
The word did not appear in the published literature until the early 19th century and did not become well enough known to use without explanation until sometime in the first third of the 20th century. Serendipity means a “happy accident” or “pleasant surprise,” specifically, the accident of finding something good or useful without looking for it. The first noted use of “serendipity” in the English language was by Horace Walpole. He explained that it came from a fairy tale, called The Three Princes of Serendip (the ancient name for Ceylon, or present-day Sri Lanka), whose heroes “were always making discoveries, by accidents and sagacity, of things which they were not in quest of.”
Antiquarians, following Walpole, found use for it, as they were always rummaging about for curiosities, and unexpected but pleasant surprises were not unknown to them. Some people just seemed to have a knack for that sort of thing, and serendipity was used to express that special capacity. The other community that came to dwell on serendipity to say something important about their practice was that of scientists, and here usages cut to the heart of the matter and were often vigorously contested. Many scientists, including the Harvard physiologist Walter Cannon and, later, the British immunologist Peter Medawar, liked to emphasize how much of scientific discovery was unplanned and even accidental. One of the examples is Hans Christian Oersted’s discovery of electromagnetism when he unintentionally brought a current-carrying wire parallel to a magnetic needle. Rhetoric about the sufficiency of rational method was so much hot air. Indeed, as Medawar insisted, “There is no such thing as The Scientific Method,” no way at all of systematizing the process of discovery. Really important discoveries had a way of showing up when they had a mind to do so and not when you were looking for them. Maybe some scientists, like some book collectors, had a happy knack; maybe serendipity described the situation rather than a personal skill or capacity.
Some scientists using the word meant to stress those accidents belonging to the situation; some treated serendipity as a personal capacity; many others exploited the ambiguity of the notion. Yet what Cannon and Medawar took as a benign nose-thumbing at Dreams of Method, other scientists found incendiary. To say that science had a significant serendipitous aspect was taken by some as dangerous denigration. If scientific discovery were really accidental, then what was the special basis of expert authority? In this connection, the aphorism of choice came from no less an authority on scientific discovery than Louis Pasteur: “Chance favors the prepared mind.” Accidents may happen, and things may turn up unplanned and unforeseen, as one is looking for something else, but the ability to notice such events, to see their potential bearing and meaning, to exploit their occurrence and make constructive use of them—these are the results of systematic mental preparation. What seems like an accident is just another form of expertise. On closer inspection, it is insisted, an accident dissolves into sagacity.
The context in which scientific serendipity was most contested and had its greatest resonance was that connected with the idea of planned science. The serendiptists were not all inhabitants of academic ivory towers. As Merton and Barber note, two of the great early-20th-century American pioneers of industrial research—Willis Whitney and Irving Langmuir, both of General Electric—made much play of serendipity, in the course of arguing against overly rigid research planning. Langmuir thought that misconceptions about the certainty and rationality of the research process did much harm and that a mature acceptance of uncertainty was far more likely to result in productive research policies. For his part, Langmuir said that satisfactory outcomes “occurred as though we were just drifting with the wind. These things came about by accident.” If there is no very determinate relationship between cause and effect in research, he said, “then planning does not get us very far.” So, from within the bowels of corporate capitalism came powerful arguments, by way of serendipity, for scientific spontaneity and autonomy. The notion that industry was invariably committed to the regimentation of scientific research just doesn’t wash.
For Merton himself—who one supposes must have been the senior author—serendipity represented the keystone in the arch of his social scientific work. In 1936, as a very young man, Merton wrote a seminal essay on “The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action.” It is, he argued, the nature of social action that what one intends is rarely what one gets: Intending to provide resources for buttressing Christian religion, the natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution laid the groundwork for secularism; people wanting to be alone with nature in Yosemite Valley wind up crowding one another. We just don’t know enough—and we can never know enough—to ensure that the past is an adequate guide to the future: Uncertainty about outcomes, even of our best-laid plans, is endemic. All social action, including that undertaken with the best evidence and formulated according to the most rational criteria, is uncertain in its consequences.
Reading Comprehension Questions and Answers
Questions 27-32
Choose the most suitable heading for paragraphs A-G from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate number, i-x, in boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet.
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(i) Examples of some scientific discoveries
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(ii) Horace Walpole’s fairy tale
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(iii) Resolving the contradiction
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(iv) What is the Scientific Method
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(v) The contradiction of views on scientific discovery
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(vi) Some misunderstandings of serendipity
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(vii) Opponents of authority
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(viii) Reality doesn’t always match expectation
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(ix) How the word came into being
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(x) Illustration of serendipity in the business sector
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Paragraph A: (v)
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Paragraph C: (ix)
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Paragraph D: (i)
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Paragraph E: (vi)
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Paragraph F: (x)
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Paragraph G: (viii)
Questions 33-37
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in boxes 33-37 on your answer sheet.
- In paragraph A, the word “inductivism” means:
- C) Accept chance discoveries.
- Medawar says “there is no such thing as The Scientific Method” because:
- B) Discoveries tend to happen unplanned.
- Many scientists dislike the idea of serendipity because:
- D) It devalues their scientific expertise.
- The writer mentions Irving Langmuir to illustrate:
- D) Accepting uncertainty can help produce positive results.
- The example of Yosemite is to show:
- A) The conflict between reality and expectation.
Questions 38-40
Answer the questions below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.
- Who was the first person to use the word “serendipity”?
- Horace Walpole
- What kind of story does the word come from?
- Fairy tale
- What is the present name of Serendip?
- Sri Lanka
Detailed Answers Explanation with Key (Answer Keys)
Questions 27-32
- Paragraph A (v): Addresses the contradictory views on scientific discovery.
- Paragraph C (ix): Explains the origin and early uses of the word “serendipity”.
- Paragraph D (i): Provides examples of scientific discoveries, including Hans Christian Oersted’s electromagnetism discovery.
- Paragraph E (vi): Discusses various scientists’ misunderstandings or varied interpretations of serendipity.
- Paragraph F (x): Illustrates serendipity within the context of business and corporate research, particularly in General Electric.
- Paragraph G (viii): Talks about the unpredictability and conflict between intentions and outcomes in social actions.
Questions 33-37
- Question 33 (C): Inductivism in context means to accept chance discoveries, highlighting the unpredictable nature of scientific discovery.
- Question 34 (B): Medawar’s assertion rejects the notion of a rigid “Scientific Method” because real discoveries often happen unplanned.
- Question 35 (D): Scientists object to serendipity because it undermines the perceived authority and expertise in scientific methodology.
- Question 36 (D): Langmuir’s example supports the idea that embracing uncertainty can lead to positive, unexpected results in scientific research.
- Question 37 (A): The Yosemite analogy illustrates the gap between expected outcomes and actual results in social actions.
Questions 38-40
- Question 38: Horace Walpole was the first to use the term “serendipity”.
- Question 39: The word originates from a “fairy tale”.
- Question 40: Serendip is now known as “Sri Lanka”.
Common Mistakes When Answering Reading Questions
- Misinterpreting Keywords: Failing to correctly identify or understand key terms can lead to wrong answers.
- Ignoring Context: Always consider the context in which a word or phrase is used. This can change its meaning significantly.
- Overlooking Details: Important details often hide in plain sight and can easily be missed if reading too quickly.
- Focus on Memorization Over Comprehension: Understanding the passage outweighs mere memorization of facts.
Vocabulary from the Passage
| Vocabulary Word | Part of Speech | Phonetics | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Serendipity | Noun | /ˌsɛrənˈdɪpɪti/ | The occurrence of events by chance in a happy or beneficial way. |
| Deductivism | Noun | /dɪˈdʌktɪvɪzəm/ | A method of reasoning from the general to the specific. |
| Inductivism | Noun | /ɪnˈdʌktɪvɪzəm/ | A method of reasoning in which general principles are derived from specific observations. |
| Sagacity | Noun | /səˈɡæsɪti/ | The quality of being sagacious; wisdom or sound judgment. |
Challenging Grammar Structures
| Grammar Structure | Formula | Example in Use |
|---|---|---|
| Passive Voice | Subject + be + past participle | “The word serendipity was first used by Horace Walpole.” |
| Conditionals | If + present simple + simple future | “If you accept uncertainty, you might achieve better results.” |
Understanding and mastering these structures can greatly aid in both comprehension and expression during the IELTS exam.